Glossary

field of psychology dedicated to studying every aspect of how people think

tendency to ignore evidence that disproves ideas or beliefs

serves as a basis for comparison and controls for chance factors that might influence the results of the study—by holding such factors constant across groups so that the experimental manipulation is the only difference between groups

The ability to flexibly allocate attentional resources between two or more concurrent tasks.

variable that is influenced or controlled by the experimenter; in a sound experimental study, the independent variable is the only important difference between the experimental and control group

people become aware that they are dreaming and can control the dream’s content

description of what actions and operations will be used to measure the dependent variables and manipulate the independent variables

method of experimental group assignment in which all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group

subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

midbrain structure where dopamine is produced; involved in control of movement

lapses in memory that are caused by breaks in attention or our focus being somewhere else

adjustment of a schema by changing a scheme to accommodate new information different from what was already known

input of sounds, words, and music

period of initial learning in classical conditioning in which a human or an animal begins to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus will begin to elicit the conditioned response

electrical signal that moves down the neuron’s axon

theory that dreams are the result of electrical impulses that pull random thoughts and imagery from our memories

phenomenon of explaining other people’s behaviors are due to internal factors and our own behaviors are due to situational forces

period of development that begins at puberty and ends at early adulthood

a written legal document that details specific interventions a person wants (see living will)

prejudice and discrimination toward individuals based solely on their age

seeking to cause harm or pain to another person

drug that mimics or strengthens the effects of a neurotransmitter

anxiety disorder characterized by intense fear, anxiety, and avoidance of situations in which it might be difficult to escape if one experiences symptoms of a panic attack

memory model that states we process information through three systems: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory

problem-solving strategy characterized by a specific set of instructions

phenomenon that incoming signal from another neuron is either sufficient or insufficient to reach the threshold of excitation

type of rbrain wave characteristic during the early part of NREM stage 1 sleep, which has fairly low amplitude and a frequency of 8–12 Hz

professional organization representing psychologists in the United States

loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma

structure in the limbic system involved in our experience of emotion and tying emotional meaning to our memories

faulty heuristic in which you fixate on a single aspect of a problem to find a solution

drug that blocks or impedes the normal activity of a given neurotransmitter

loss of memory for events that occur after the brain trauma

characterized by excessive and persistent fear and anxiety, and by related disturbances in behavior

method of research using past records or data sets to answer various research questions, or to search for interesting patterns or relationships

strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories

concept that is defined by a very specific set of characteristics

group majority influences an individual’s judgment, even when that judgment is inaccurate

adjustment of a schema by adding information similar to what is already known

form of learning that involves connecting certain stimuli or events that occur together in the environment (classical and operant conditioning)

long-standing connection or bond with others

evaluations of or feelings toward a person, idea, or object that are typically positive or negative

explanation for the behavior of other people

reduction in number of research participants as some drop out of the study over time

strip of cortex in the temporal lobe that is responsible for processing auditory information

parents place a high value on conformity and obedience, are often rigid, and express little warmth to the child

parents give children reasonable demands and consistent limits, express warmth and affection, and listen to the child’s point of view

episodic memories of your life

controls our internal organs and glands

faulty heuristic in which you make a decision based on information readily available to you

characterized by child’s unresponsiveness to parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if parent leaves

major extension of the soma

Approach of observing and controlling behavior

type of brain wave characteristic during wakefulness, which has a very low amplitude and a frequency of 13–30 Hz

how feelings and view of the world distort memory of past events

view that psychological disorders like depression and schizophrenia are associated with imbalances in one or more neurotransmitter systems

internal cycle of biological activity

A reductionist model that posits that ill health is a result of a deviation from normal function, which is explained by the presence of pathogens, injury, or genetic abnormality.

study of how biology influences behavior

perspective that asserts that biology, psychology, and social factors interact to determine an individual’s health

An approach to studying health and human function that posits the importance of biological, psychological, and social (or environmental) processes.

memory error in which you cannot access stored information

emotional expression through body position or movement

region in the left hemisphere that is essential for language production

a person, often an adolescent, being treated negatively repeatedly and over time

physiological arousal and emotional experience occur at the same time

lack of muscle tone or muscle weakness, and in some cases complete paralysis of the voluntary muscles

a set of objects that can be treated as equivalent in some way

changes in one variable cause the changes in the other variable; can be determined only through an experimental research design

brain and spinal cord

logic-driven arguments using data and facts to convince people of an argument’s worthiness

hindbrain structure that controls our balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills, and it is thought to be important in processing some types of memory

surface of the brain that is associated with our highest mental capabilities

organizing information into manageable bits or chunks

biological rhythm that occurs over approximately 24 hours

learning in which the stimulus or experience occurs before the behavior and then gets paired or associated with the behavior

observational research study focusing on one or a few people

area of psychology that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior

opiate with relatively low potency often prescribed for minor pain

thinking, including perception, learning, problem solving, judgment, and memory

domain of lifespan development that examines learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity

ability to take the perspective of others and to feel concern for others

mental picture of the layout of the environment

study of cognitions, or thoughts, and their relationship to experiences and actions

set of behaviors that are performed the same way each time; also referred to as an event schema

The cultural trend in which the primary unit of measurement is the group. Collectivists are likely to emphasize duty and obligation over personal aspirations.

culture that focuses on communal relationships with others such as family, friends, and community

imaging technique in which a computer coordinates and integrates multiple x-rays of a given area

category or grouping of linguistic information, objects, ideas, or life experiences

third stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development; from about 7 to 11 years old, children can think logically about real (concrete) events

response caused by the conditioned stimulus

stimulus that elicits a response due to its being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

seeking out information that supports our stereotypes while ignoring information that is inconsistent with our stereotypes

when individuals change their behavior to go along with the group even if they do not agree with the group

unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of interest, often giving the false impression that changes in one variable causes changes in the other variable, when, in actuality, the outside factor causes changes in both variables

awareness of internal and external stimuli

idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size, volume, or number as long as nothing is added or removed

formulation of new memories

view that development is a cumulative process: gradually improving on existing skills

rewarding a behavior every time it occurs

thick band of neural fibers connecting the brain’s two hemispheres

relationship between two or more variables; when two variables are correlated, one variable changes as the other does

number from -1 to +1, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship between variables, and usually represented by r

research investigating the relationship between two or more variables

time during fetal growth when specific parts or organs develop

compares multiple segments of a population at a single time

The principle stating that the more memories that are associated to a particular retrieval cue, the less effective the cue will be in prompting retrieval of any one memory.

The ability and willingness to apply cultural awareness to practical uses

The principled objection to passing overly culture-bound (i.e., “ethnocentric”) judgements on aspects of other cultures.

Learned guides for how to behave appropriately in a given social situation. These reflect cultural norms and widely accepted values.

repeated behavior that is intended to cause psychological or emotional harm to another person and that takes place online

when an experiment involved deception, participants are told complete and truthful information about the experiment at its conclusion

purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment

type of long-term memory of facts and events we personally experience

type of brain wave characteristic during stage 3 NREM sleep, which has a high amplitude and low frequency of less than 3 Hz

branch-like extension of the soma that receives incoming signals from other neurons

variable that the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had

process of when the cell's charge becomes positive, or less negative

drug that tends to suppress central nervous system activity

research studies that do not test specific relationships between variables

approximate ages at which children reach specific normative events

scientific study of development across a lifespan

authoritative index of mental disorders and the criteria for their diagnosis; published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA)

An experimental task in which two messages are presented to different ears.

view that development takes place in unique stages, which happen at specific times or ages

negative actions toward individuals as a result of their membership in a particular group

characterized by the child’s odd behavior when faced with the parent; type of attachment seen most often with kids that are abused

describes a perspective common to personality psychologists, which asserts that our behavior is determined by internal factors, such as personality traits and temperament

a legal document stating that if a person stops breathing or their heart stops, medical personnel such as doctors and nurses are not to take steps to revive or resuscitate the patient

experiment in which both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments

deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs that result in psychological drive states that direct behavior to meet the need and ultimately bring the system back to homeostasis

preoperational child’s difficulty in taking the perspective of others

thinking about the meaning of new information and its relation to knowledge already stored in your memory

recording the electrical activity of the brain via electrodes on the scalp

multi-cellular organism in its early stages of development

newly defined period of lifespan development from 18 years old to the mid-20s; young people are taking longer to complete college, get a job, get married, and start a family

capacity to understand another person’s perspective—to feel what they feel

input of information into the memory system

The hypothesis that a retrieval cue will be effective to the extent that information encoded from the cue overlaps or matches information in the engram or memory trace.

The uniquely human form of learning that is taught by one generation to another

A term indicating the change in the nervous system representing an event; also, memory trace.

study of gene-environment interactions, such as how the same genotype leads to different phenotypes

type of declarative memory that contains information about events we have personally experienced, also known as autobiographical memory

some parts of the brain can take over for damaged parts in forming and storing memories

set of behaviors that are performed the same way each time; also referred to as a cognitive script

discipline that studies how universal patterns of behavior and cognitive processes have evolved over time as a result of natural selection

group designed to answer the research question; experimental manipulation is the only difference between the experimental and control groups, so any differences between the two are due to experimental manipulation rather than chance

research method that uses hypothesis testing to make inferences about how one variable impacts and causes another

researcher expectations skew the results of the study

memories we consciously try to remember and recall

decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus

motivation that arises from external factors or rewards

activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, allowing access to energy reserves and heightened sensory capacity so that we might fight off a given threat or run away to safety

use of muscles in fingers, toes, and eyes to coordinate small actions

behavior is rewarded after a set amount of time

set number of responses must occur before a behavior is rewarded

Vivid personal memories of receiving the news of some momentous (and usually emotional) event.

largest part of the brain, containing the cerebral cortex, the thalamus, and the limbic system, among other structures

loss of information from long-term memory

final stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development; from age 11 and up, children are able to deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations

part of the cerebral cortex involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language; contains motor cortex

inability to see an object as useful for any other use other than the one for which it was intended

MRI that shows changes in metabolic activity over time

tendency to overemphasize internal factors as attributions for behavior and underestimate the power of the situation

inferring that the results for a sample apply to the larger population

inferring that the results for a sample apply to the larger population

sequence of DNA that controls or partially controls physical characteristics

view of gene-environment interaction that asserts our genes affect our environment, and our environment influences the expression of our genes

nervous system cell that provides physical and metabolic support to neurons, including neuronal insulation and communication, and nutrient and waste transport

set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of a lexicon

use of large muscle groups to control arms and legs for large body movements

strengthening of the original group attitude after discussing views within the group

group members modify their opinions to match what they believe is the group consensus

(plural: gyri) bump or ridge on the cerebral cortex

learning not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change

one of a class of drugs that results in profound alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences, often with vivid hallucinations

one of a class of drugs that results in profound alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences, often with vivid hallucinations

model of psychological disorders resulting from the inability of an internal mechanism to perform its natural function

a legal document that appoints a specific person to make medical decisions for a patient if they are unable to speak for themselves

left or right half of the brain

mental shortcut that saves time when solving a problem

(also, second-order conditioning) using a conditioned stimulus to condition a neutral stimulus

division of the brain containing the medulla, pons, and cerebellum

belief that the event just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn’t

structure in the temporal lobe associated with learning and memory

state of equilibrium—biological conditions, such as body temperature, are maintained at optimal levels

tendency for people to form social networks, including friendships, marriage, business relationships, and many other types of relationships, with others who are similar

prejudice and discrimination against individuals based solely on their sexual orientation

service that provides a death with dignity; pain management in a humane and comfortable environment; usually outside of a hospital setting

aggression motivated by feelings of anger with intent to cause pain

neuron becoming slightly more negative than the resting potential

high blood pressure

state of extreme self-focus and attention in which minimal attention is given to external stimuli

forebrain structure that regulates sexual motivation and behavior and a number of homeostatic processes; serves as an interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system

seeing relationships between two things when in reality no such relationship exists

memories that are not part of our consciousness

group that we identify with or see ourselves as belonging to

preference for our own group over other groups

The failure to notice a fully visible object when attention is devoted to something else.

A model or view of the self as distinct from others and as stable across different situations. The goal of the independent self is to express and assert the self, and to influence others. This model of self is prevalent in many individualistic, Western contexts (e.g., the United States, Australia, Western Europe).

variable that is influenced or controlled by the experimenter; in a sound experimental study, the independent variable is the only important difference between the experimental and control group

The cultural trend in which the primary unit of measurement is the individual. Individualists are likely to emphasize uniqueness and personal aspirations over social duty.

culture that focuses on individual achievement and autonomy

conformity to a group norm prompted by the belief that the group is competent and has the correct information

process of informing a research participant about what to expect during an experiment, any risks involved, and the implications of the research, and then obtaining the person’s consent to participate

consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep for at least three nights a week over a month’s time

unlearned knowledge, involving complex patterns of behavior; instincts are thought to be more prevalent in lower animals than in humans

committee of administrators, scientists, veterinarians, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving non-human animals

committee of administrators, scientists, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving human participants

aggression motivated by achieving a goal and does not necessarily involve intent to cause pain

measure of agreement among observers on how they record and classify a particular event

A model or view of the self as connected to others and as changing in response to different situations. The goal of the interdependent self is to suppress personal preferences and desires, and to adjust to others. This model of self is prevalent in many collectivistic, East Asian contexts (e.g., China, Japan, Korea).

internal attribute of a person, such as personality traits or temperament

authoritative index of mental and physical diseases, including infectious diseases, and the criteria for their diagnosis; published by the World Health Organization (WHO)

motivation based on internal feelings rather than external rewards

emotions arise from physiological arousal

collection of symptoms brought on by travel from one time zone to another that results from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our environment

ideology common in the United States that people get the outcomes they deserve

theory that people value goals and achievements more when they have put more effort into them

very high amplitude pattern of brain activity associated with stage 2 sleep that may occur in response to environmental stimuli

communication system that involves using words to transmit information from one individual to another

learning that occurs, but it may not be evident until there is a reason to demonstrate it

concept that each hemisphere of the brain is associated with specialized functions

behavior that is followed by consequences satisfying to the organism will be repeated and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be discouraged

durable change in behavior or knowledge that is the result of experience

information that is thought of more deeply becomes more meaningful and thus better committed to memory

Words and expressions.

collection of structures involved in processing emotion and memory

The notion that humans have limited mental resources that can be used at a given time.

a written legal document that details specific interventions a person wants; may include health care proxy

continuous storage of information

deep groove in the brain’s cortex

studies in which the same group of individuals is surveyed or measured repeatedly over an extended period of time

magnetic fields used to produce a picture of the tissue being imaged

clearing the mind in order to achieve a state of relaxed awareness and focus

hindbrain structure that controls automated processes like breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate

difference in charge across the neuronal membrane

set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods of time

technique to help make sure information goes from short-term memory to long-term memory

continually using an old solution to a problem without results

study that combines the results of several related studies

synthetic opioid that is less euphorigenic than heroin and similar drugs; used to manage withdrawal symptoms in opiate users

type of amphetamine that can be made from pseudoephedrine, an over-the-counter drug; widely manufactured and abused

division of the brain located between the forebrain and the hindbrain; contains the reticular formation

The idea that our emotions and thoughts can affect how our body functions.

memory error in which you confuse the source of your information

after exposure to additional and possibly inaccurate information, a person may misremember the original event

memory aids that help organize information for encoding

person who performs a behavior that serves as an example (in observational learning)

smallest unit of language that conveys some type of meaning

strip of cortex involved in planning and coordinating movement

ability to move our body and manipulate objects

fatty substance that insulates axons

sleep disorder in which the sufferer cannot resist falling to sleep at inopportune times

mental groupings that are created “naturally” through your experiences

observation of behavior in its natural setting

two variables change in different directions, with one becoming larger as the other becomes smaller; a negative correlation is not the same thing as no correlation

taking away a pleasant stimulus to decrease or stop a behavior

taking away an undesirable stimulus to increase a behavior

cells in the nervous system that act as interconnected information processors, which are essential for all of the tasks of the nervous system

chemical messenger of the nervous system

stimulus that does not initially elicit a response

inborn automatic response to a particular form of stimulation that all healthy babies are born with

sleep disorder in which the sleeper experiences a sense of panic and may scream or attempt to escape from the immediate environment

period of sleep outside periods of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

study of development using norms, or average ages, when most children reach specific developmental milestones

conformity to a group norm to fit in, feel good, and be accepted by the group

change of behavior to please an authority figure or to avoid aversive consequences

idea that even if something is out of sight, it still exists

type of learning that occurs by watching others

when observations may be skewed to align with observer expectations

part of the cerebral cortex associated with visual processing; contains the primary visual cortex

form of learning in which the stimulus/experience happens after the behavior is demonstrated

one of a category of drugs that has strong analgesic properties; opiates are produced from the resin of the opium poppy; includes heroin, morphine, methadone, and codeine

group that we don’t belong to—one that we view as fundamentally different from us

extension of a rule that exists in a given language to an exception to the rule

statistical probability that represents the likelihood that experimental results happened by chance

one of a group of sleep disorders characterized by unwanted, disruptive motor activity and/or experiences during sleep

associated with routine, day-to-day operations of the body

part of the cerebral cortex involved in processing various sensory and perceptual information; contains the primary somatosensory cortex

rewarding behavior only some of the time

subjects of psychological research

connects the brain and spinal cord to the muscles, organs and senses in the periphery of the body

one person persuades another person; an indirect route that relies on association of peripheral cues (such as positive emotions and celebrity endorsement) to associate positivity with a message

parents make few demands and rarely use punishment

failure of the memory system that involves the involuntary recall of unwanted memories, particularly unpleasant ones

consistent pattern of thought and behavior

process of changing our attitude toward something based on some form of communication

(doctor of philosophy) doctoral degree conferred in many disciplinary perspectives housed in a traditional college of liberal arts and sciences

basic sound unit of a given language

changes in normal bodily functions that cause a drug user to experience withdrawal symptoms upon cessation of use

domain of lifespan development that examines growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness

people's expectations or beliefs influencing or determining their experience in a given situation

structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen to the developing baby

hindbrain structure that connects the brain and spinal cord; involved in regulating brain activity during sleep

overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in

two variables change in the same direction, both becoming either larger or smaller

adding an undesirable stimulus to stop or decrease a behavior

adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior

involves injecting individuals with a mildly radioactive substance and monitoring changes in blood flow to different regions of the brain

allows young scientists to further develop their research programs and broaden their research skills under the supervision of other professionals in the field

area in the frontal lobe responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning

negative attitudes and feelings toward individuals based solely on their membership in a particular group

medical care during pregnancy that monitors the health of both the mother and the fetus

second stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development; from ages 2 to 7, children learn to use symbols and language but do not understand mental operations and often think illogically

has innate reinforcing qualities (e.g., food, water, shelter, sex)

old information hinders the recall of newly learned information

method for solving problems

type of long-term memory for making skilled actions, such as how to brush your teeth, how to drive a car, and how to swim

voluntary behavior with the intent to help other people

best representation of a concept

emotional, rather than a physical, need for a drug which may be used to relieve psychological distress

(psychology) scientific study of mind, brain, and behavior

process proposed by Freud in which pleasure-seeking urges focus on different erogenous zones of the body as humans move through five stages of life

domain of lifespan development that examines emotions, personality, and social relationships from infancy through adulthood, proposed by Erikson

drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring neurotransmitter balance

implementation of a consequence in order to decrease a behavior

prejudice and discrimination toward individuals based solely on their race

staunch form of behaviorism developed by B. F. Skinner that suggested that even complex higher mental functions like human language are nothing more than stimulus-outcome associations

period of sleep characterized by brain waves very similar to those during wakefulness and by darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids

accessing information without cues

protein on the cell surface where neurotransmitters attach

taking the information from the form it is delivered to us and then converting it in a way that we can make sense of it

identifying previously learned information after encountering it again, usually in response to a cue

process of bringing up old memories that might be distorted by new information

unlearned, automatic response by an organism to a stimulus in the environment

repetition of information to be remembered

implementation of a consequence in order to increase a behavior

learning information that was previously learned

consistency and reproducibility of a given result

sleep disorder in which the muscle paralysis associated with the REM sleep phase does not occur; sleepers have high levels of physical activity during REM sleep, especially during disturbing dreams

subset of the population that accurately represents the general population

characterized by the child’s tendency to show clingy behavior and rejection of the parent when they attempt to interact with the child

the state of readiness of a neuron membrane’s potential between signals

sleep disorder in which the sufferer has uncomfortable sensations in the legs when trying to fall asleep that are relieved by moving the legs

midbrain structure important in regulating the sleep/wake cycle, arousal, alertness, and motor activity

act of getting information out of long-term memory storage and back into conscious awareness

information learned more recently hinders the recall of older information

loss of memory for events that occurred prior to brain trauma

neurotransmitter is pumped back into the neuron that released it

principle that objects can be changed, but then returned back to their original form or condition

Rites or actions performed in a systematic or prescribed way often for an intended purpose. Example: The exchange of wedding rings during a marriage ceremony in many cultures.

set of expectations that define the behaviors of a person occupying a particular role

work schedule that changes from early to late on a daily or weekly basis

subset of individuals selected from the larger population

act of blaming an out-group when the in-group experiences frustration or is blocked from obtaining a goal

emotions consist of two factors: physiological and cognitive

(plural = schemata) mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts

person’s knowledge about the sequence of events in a specific setting

has no inherent value unto itself and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with something else (e.g., money, gold stars, poker chips)

physical signs of sexual maturation that do not directly involve sex organs

characterized by the child using the parent as a secure base from which to explore

parental presence that gives the infant/toddler a sense of safety as they explore their surroundings

The ability to select certain stimuli in the environment to process, while ignoring distracting information.

The extent to which the self is defined as independent or as relating to others.

individual’s belief in their own capabilities or capacities to complete a task

treating stereotyped group members according to our biased expectations only to have this treatment influence the individual to act according to our stereotypic expectations, thus confirming our stereotypic beliefs

tendency for individuals to take credit by making dispositional or internal attributions for positive outcomes and situational or external attributions for negative outcomes

input of words and their meaning

type of declarative memory about words, concepts, and language-based knowledge and facts

process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words

first stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development; from birth through age 2, a child learns about the world through senses and motor behavior

storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes

prejudice and discrimination toward individuals based on their sex

A task in which the individual is asked to repeat an auditory message as it is presented.

rewarding successive approximations toward a target behavior

holds about seven bits of information before it is forgotten or stored, as well as information that has been retrieved and is being used

experiment in which the researcher knows which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group

Being guided by different cultural influences in different situations, such as home versus workplace, or formal versus informal roles.

describes a perspective that behavior and actions are determined by the immediate environment and surroundings; a view promoted by social psychologists

state marked by relatively low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness that is distinct from periods of rest that occur during wakefulness

sleep disorder defined by episodes during which breathing stops during sleep

result of insufficient sleep on a chronic basis

sleep-deprived individuals will experience shorter sleep latencies during subsequent opportunities for sleep

rapid burst of high frequency brain waves during stage 2 sleep that may be important for learning and memory

(also, somnambulism) sleep disorder in which the sleeper engages in relatively complex behaviors

exertion of less effort by a person working in a group because individual performance cannot be evaluated separately from the group, thus causing performance decline on easy tasks

group’s expectations regarding what is appropriate and acceptable for the thoughts and behavior of its members

field of psychology that examines how people impact or affect each other, with particular focus on the power of the situation

socially defined pattern of behavior that is expected of a person in a given setting or group

social support/friendships dwindle in number, but remain as close, if not more close than in earlier years

cell body

relays sensory and motor information to and from the CNS

essential for processing sensory information from across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain

anxiety disorder characterized by excessive, distressing, and persistent fear or anxiety about a specific object or situation

return of a previously extinguished conditioned response

first stage of sleep; transitional phase that occurs between wakefulness and sleep; the period during which a person drifts off to sleep

second stage of sleep; the body goes into deep relaxation; characterized by the appearance of sleep spindles

third stage of sleep; deep sleep characterized by low frequency, high amplitude delta waves

process proposed by Kohlberg; humans move through three stages of moral development

Stanford University conducted an experiment in a mock prison that demonstrated the power of social roles, social norms, and scripts

determines how likely any difference between experimental groups is due to chance

determines how likely any difference between experimental groups is due to chance

specific beliefs or assumptions about individuals based solely on their membership in a group, regardless of their individual characteristics

drug that tends to increase overall levels of neural activity; includes caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, and cocaine

ability to respond differently to similar stimuli

demonstrating the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus

creation of a permanent record of information

effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories

(plural: sulci) depressions or grooves in the cerebral cortex

area of the hypothalamus in which the body’s biological clock is located

list of questions to be answered by research participants—given as paper-and-pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally—allowing researchers to collect data from a large number of people

involved in stress-related activities and functions

small gap between two neurons where communication occurs

storage site for neurotransmitters

manner by which words are organized into sentences

part of cerebral cortex associated with hearing, memory, emotion, and some aspects of language; contains primary auditory cortex

biological, chemical, or physical environmental agent that causes damage to the developing embryo or fetus

axon terminal containing synaptic vesicles

sensory relay for the brain

type of brain wave characteristic of the end of stage 1 NREM sleep, which has a moderately low amplitude and a frequency of 4–7 Hz

level of charge in the membrane that causes the neuron to become active

state of requiring increasing quantities of the drug to gain the desired effect

memory error in which unused memories fade with the passage of time

problem-solving strategy in which multiple solutions are attempted until the correct one is found

natural (unlearned) behavior to a given stimulus

stimulus that elicits a reflexive response

parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful; they don’t respond to the child’s needs and make relatively few demands

accuracy of a given result in measuring what it is designed to measure

Research that is not influenced by the researchers’ own values, morality, or opinions.

behavior is rewarded after unpredictable amounts of time have passed

number of responses differ before a behavior is rewarded

midbrain structure where dopamine is produced: associated with mood, reward, and addiction

process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model’s behavior

process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model’s behavior

input of images

characterized by high levels of sensory awareness, thought, and behavior

important for speech comprehension

variety of negative symptoms experienced when drug use is discontinued

heuristic in which you begin to solve a problem by focusing on the end result

structure created when a sperm and egg merge at conception; begins as a single cell and rapidly divides to form the embryo and placenta